Social Psychology Bringing It All Together Essay

Social Psychology: Bringing It All Together PSY 301 Sarah Koerner-Jordan October 22, 2012 Franchelle Guy Social Psychology: Bringing It All Together Social psychology is the scientific study of human thoughts, feelings, and behavior as they relate to and are influenced by others (Feenstra, 2011). It is a broad field that covers a variety of topics. Social psychologists study a variety of topics, including views of the self, persuasion, attraction, and group processes. Researchers study all aspects of social psychology and in some cases enlist the help of a â€Å"confederate†, someone who appears to be a naà ¯ve part of the experiment. The confederate ensures that the experiment is going as planned. A part of social†¦show more content†¦An optimistic person will higher self-esteem and more satisfaction overall with their life events. Pessimistic style people have been linked to depression and suicide. Attitudes have been considered important to social psychology. Attitudes are evaluations. Our attitudes involve evaluations of other people, behaviors, and objects. In the theory of planned behavior, if we want to predict a behavior we need to know three things: (1) attitude toward that behavior, (2) subjective norms related to that behavior, and (3) perceived behavioral control. If someone has a positive attitude, positive subjective norms, and high perceived behavioral control, we can predict with some accuracy that they will engage in the same behavior and vice versa. For example: I would be more likely to eat at a restaurant my best friend highly recommends, especially if I haven’t eaten there before. The gap between what one believes and what they do creates a type of tension known as cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance can be reduced without changing one’s attitude and it can be helpful in understanding or promoting behavior change. For example, when Japanese college students are aware of potential public scrutiny of their choices, they show gre ater dissonance. Self-Perception Theory states that we can figure out our attitudes by looking at our behaviors. For example, if someone detests overweightShow MoreRelatedPSY 301 Week 5 Final Paper Social Psychology Bringing It All Together618 Words   |  3 PagesFinal Paper Social Psychology Bringing It All Together in this pack Social Psychology: Bringing It All Together According to Feenstra (2011): â€Å"Social psychologists investigate how we view ourselves and others, how we interact with others, how we influence others, and how we act when we are part of a group. Given the amount of time each of us spends thinking about and interacting with the people we encounter every day, much of our lives are spent with the subject matter of social psychologyRead MoreAsdfghjkl894 Words   |  4 PagesSociology Research Area * * Aging and the Life Course * Alcohol and Substance Abuse * Asia amp; Asian America * Collective Behavior and Social Movements * Community and Urban Sociology * Comparative and Historical Sociology * Sociology and Computers * Crime, Law amp; Deviance * Economic Sociology * Environment amp; Technology * Family amp; Marriage * History of Sociology * International Migration * Latino/aRead MoreHow Architecture Can Affect The Surrounding1361 Words   |  6 PagesArchitectural Psychology- ‘I want to design things that people get pleasure in making and want to make things that people get pleasure in using’- William Morris How architecture can affect the surrounding relating to human emotions- Architecture for Humanism=Architecture for people, encouraging people to respond of pleasure in inhabiting. As an architect in in the study field, we required to provide to write our work, our motives, our philosophies and our detailed approach to the design. To buildRead MoreThe Psychological Benefits Of Our Thanksgiving Rituals Essay856 Words   |  4 Pagesexplores a discussion about the Psychological Benefits of Our Thanksgiving Rituals. Four experts in the field of psychology, who specialized in family traditions, convened in a roundtable discussion about what ritual means in the subject of Thanksgiving. The four psychologists who were involved in this discussion are: First is Anne Fishel, an associate clinical professor of psychology and author of the book â€Å"Home for dinner†, Second is Janine Roberts, a family therapist, a professor emerita of familyRead MorePyc4811 Assignment 11430 Words   |à ‚  6 PagesNumber- 55560296 Community Psychology and Public Health’s Approaches to Social Problems Introduction Community Psychology and Public Health models both cover the same ground but with key differences in the explanation of causes and influences on mental illness. Community psychology has a primary focus on understanding, and working with, people in their wider social context. Public Health on the other hand is concerned with preventing disease and distress of all forms before they occur (TutorialRead MoreAn Analysis Of The Wellness Center876 Words   |  4 Pageswill be discussing the specifics for this initial budget. There are many things to consider when wanting to open a place of business whether if it is for profit or non-profit. First, one should know where the funding comes from, and make sure to read all the conditions and fine print. As funding can be lost if the person utilizing the grant is not following instructions. Additionally, ads must be developed to hire individuals for the new facility. Budget Introduction Establishing an organizationRead MoreJean Piaget s Theory Of Psychology744 Words   |  3 Pageschildhood development and psychology that ever existed. His input towards human intelligence is second to none. Piaget learned the value of hard work from his father who was a medieval history writer. His mother was also very intelligent. Although she was a very bright and energetic individual, she was also mentally ill and that has some very troublesome effects on the everyday family life for them. These mental issues are what encouraged Piaget to study psychology in the first place. At suchRead MorePrejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination Essay1414 Words   |  6 Pagestime in his or her life. There is no doubt social discrimination, prejudice, and hostility still create serious problems and challenges, even in today’s apparently more and more individualized and â€Å"enlightened† society. This paper will discuss prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination in the context of social psychology; what the consequences of stereotyping and discrimination are; and strategies to improve attitudes, judgments, and behaviors. Social psychologists recognize prejudice, stereotypingRead MoreThe Theories Of The Two Directions Psychology And Theology1268 Words   |  6 PagesEntwistle addresses the concept of the two directions psychology and theology. He addresses the two concepts by bringing in other scholarly professors information and principally integrating it with Christianity. Entwistle description at the beginning of the book was very enlightening. â€Å"The scenario of â€Å"a walk in the woods,† (Entwistle, 2010, p.3) is a psychological theory for life choices. According to Entwistle, he describes the uniqueness that each counselor can bring to their practice. OnRead MoreMy Best Professional Experience Since College1069 Words   |  5 Pagesof the business and I consider that my ability to adapt has always been my competitive advantage when facing so many different environments. My diverse professional experience since college has included accounts payable accountant, case management, social worker and outreach coordinator. My goals have evolved through experience in those diverse settings, and my goal now is to obtain my MBA specializing in Real Estate from Marylhurst University. I have always read self-help books that stated â€Å" figure

The Negative Effects Of Procrastination - 1525 Words

What is something that just seems to be apart of our human nature, our generic code, something that is now considered an inescapable trait of life? Sure you can fit â€Å"death† into this description, or other dreadful things; like paying taxes, college loans or typing essays, but the one thing you should be thinking of is procrastination. In the dictionary it is defined as â€Å"the act or habit of procrastinating, or putting off or delaying, especially something requiring immediate attention† (Dictionary 1). This has gone pass a habit and has even become more of a psychological disorder, because everyone procrastinates; but not everyone is actually a procrastinator. Procrastinators struggle through completing a task head-on, and the act could†¦show more content†¦None of these types pertain to being lazy but in Ana Swanson’s Washington Post article â€Å"The real reason you Procrastinate† she mentions how â€Å"for many people, procrastination are a strong and mysterious force that keeps them from completing the most urgent and important tasks in their lives† (Swanson 2). This concept can be extremely relatable among many college students, since they are introduced to a whole new environment and way of life that they must learn to adapt and tackle head on. For example, John Tierney, a New York Times author explains that students spend about a third of the day procrastinating and particularly young men (Tierney 1). The act of procrastinating may seem like an unstoppable force placed on earth, but they are ways around a habit. Many would pay their values to the habit, actually calling procrastination â€Å"helpful†. But while this could be true, we are talking about the majority rather the minority of people who actually enjoy procrastinating. This brings up the next topic where we explain the many effects that procrastinating can hold, and particularly we will be focusing on the many negatives that of course o utweigh the â€Å"positives†. As mentioned previously, the vast majority of people do procrastinate and mainly prevalent in college students, where leaving an assignment for the next day isShow MoreRelatedThe Negative Effects Of Procrastination854 Words   |  4 Pagesstudents surveyed said they procrastinate on school work. Yet, these people know the negative impacts of procrastination; 45 percent of them said so themselves (Klein). Still, there are many appealing reasons as to why students procrastinate, whether on school work or daily life. However, the effects such as academic misconduct or amplified stress are not as positive. While many factors play in the cause of procrastination, it generally occurs when someone with little self control and lack of impulse controlRead MoreNegative Effects Of Procrastination1777 Words   |  8 Pages One of my toughest mental battles that I had to face was dealing with procrastination. Procrastination is the delaying on one’s objectives. While everyone has procrastinated during their lifetime, there is a twenty percent chance in becoming a full-time procrastinator. Basically if you compared yourself and four friends, then one of you is likely to be a full-time procrastinator. Procrastination only bring negative effects such as: setting a bad reputation upon yourself, missing out on time, missingRead MoreNegative Effects Of Procrastination1263 Words   |  6 PagesProcrastination is a habit that has existed since the beginning of time and it certainly a problem for many students. Procrastinators actively look for distractions, particularly ones that doesn t take much of commitment on their part; playing games are almost perfect for this purpose. Procrastinator distracts themselves as a way of regulating their emotions such as fear of failure. They also may actually think they get a thrill out of delaying their work and believe they work best under pressureRead MoreNegative Effects Of Procrastination On College Students1055 Words   |  5 PagesProcrastination is something we all must face in life. However, it effects college students the most. It is the practice of doing more pleasurable things in place of less pleasurable ones. For instance, being on the internet rather than typing a paper, shopping before paying your bills, or turning work in before the deadline. Therefore, you can kind of see how procrastination can affect college students academically, because younger students procrastinate the most. Procrastination has a negativeRead MoreThe Negative Effect of Procrastination on College Students858 Words   |  4 PagesProcrastination is a tendency to postpone, put off, delay, reschedule, take a rain check on, put on ice, hold off, or to defer what is necessary to reach a particular goal.(Rogets 21st Century Thesaurus, Third Edition. Philip Lief Group 2009.) While attending College some students find it hard to juggle work, family, and friends. Leading most students down a dangerous path to procrastination; that negative impact affect students from their physical health, mental health, and social health. EveryoneRead MoreHow Sleep Are Capable Of Predicting Significant Health Outcomes1599 Words   |  7 Pagesits effect on both mental and physical health (Kroese, Evers, Adriaanse, Ridder, 2016). Digdon and Howell (2008) note procrastination to be the inclination to postpone task commencement or conclusion, wavering actions, or the demonstration of insufficient time allotment for the accomplishment of tasks. Therefore, opting to go to bed later than primarily intended with no external influence is termed bedtime procrastination (Kroese., et al. 2016). Reported associations between procrastination andRead MoreThe Negative Influences Of Procrastination1344 Words   |  6 PagesNegative Influences of Procrastination We’ve all had a paper due on a Wednesday that we had known about for the past two weeks, but for some unknown and involuntary reason, we choose to save it for a Tuesday evening, which turns into a Wednesday morning as we frantically work to finish an assignment we probably could have finished in class over a couple of days. We may have been preoccupied those couple of weeks, with a job, or sports; maybe even putting together a fundraiser of some sort. Or maybeRead MoreProcrastination, Adaptive Perfectionism, Maladaptive, And Academic Performance1066 Words   |  5 PagesThis study used a correlational design to discover the relationship between procrastination, adaptive perfectionism, maladaptive perfectionism and academic performance. Using the PPS and MPS scales hundred and twenty five undergraduate university students filled out digital surveys online in classrooms. There academic performance was measured through a test. Results suggest that procrastination has a negative effect on academic performance, whereas adaptive perfectionism has a positive one. ThoseRead MoreThe Effects Of Negative Habits On College1681 Words   |  7 PagesAn Analysis of Negative Habits in College Negative habits such as alcoholism, abuse of drugs, sleep deprivation, and procrastination impact minority students more than non-minority students. Many students go off to college every year and do not stay on track. They begin college with the best of intentions: go to class, excel, and eventually graduate. College is very fun, but it is also a time in your life where you have to learn what to put first, and what can wait for later. Some students suchRead More Procrastination: Habit or Disorder? Essay1395 Words   |  6 PagesProcrastination: Habit or Disorder? Procrastination is the art of keeping up with yesterday and avoiding today. - Wayne Dyer (6) Universally common to college students, procrastination is often addressed as a bad habit. Yet, in most cases, this isnt a nuance, but a perpetual occurrence - no longer qualifying for the term habit. Typically thought of as a behavioral trait, procrastination thrives on a cycle of blame shifting and avoidance. Falling victim to this habit myself, I embarked

Health Benefits about Writing Positive Emotions

Question: Discuss about theHealth Benefits about Writing Positive Emotions. Answer: Introduction: Most of the studies mentioned about the writing experience are associated with the writing about the negative emotions. It is evident from the literature that, writing about the negative emotions is not beneficial for the health improvement (King, 2002). Other the other hand research has suggested that use of high level of positive emotion words and low level of negative emotion words, leads to the improvement in the health. Benefits of the writing include gaining the experience of evidence and narrating it. Research has also shown that usage of positive words in the writing and in the expression is associated with the longer duration of life (Isen, 1999; Isen, 2001). (Pennebaker Francis) 1996, incorporated 72 student participants comprising of 44 females and 28 males. Authors requested students to write about their college experience. Writing assignment was conducted for three consecutive days. Writing assignment comprised of reflection of the thoughts and emotions about the experience in the college. Participants were divided into control and experimental group. Control group participants were requested not to write about their emotions and experimental group participants were requested to write about their emotions. Questionnaires were collected on the last day of the writing assignment. This questionnaire evaluated mood and beliefs of participants about their writing. Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) was applied for the text analysis. These word counts were related to the specific scales. Study didnt find significant difference in the expression of sadness and happiness among the participants. Health checkup visits were significantly reduced in the experimental group in comparison to the control group following two months of the test. There was improvement in the grade point average (GPA) in the experimental group in comparison to the control group. From this study it is evident that use of more positive words lead to the health improvement and use of insightful and causal language lead to improvement in the health. In this study students were evaluated based on the different criteria like self-assessment, long duration effects on both health and academic performance and experimental based cognitive improvement. (Burtona King) 2004, incorporated 90 undergraduates students and these participants were divided in the intensely positive experience (48) and control topic (42). Three days writing sessions were conducted of 20 minutes each. Before and after each writing sessions, mood forms were filled by the participants. Scale of positive and negative words were rated on 1 7scale. Participants were educated to write mainly about their wonderful and happiest experience in the life. Participants were instructed to imagine their experience and write about it in detail. This writing should incorporate participants feelings, thoughts and emotions. Participants were asked to visit the health centers for three months prior to and three months after the completion of written rest. For this duration health record of participants were maintained for regular health check-ups and injuries. Evaluations of these essays were done by two independent raters and LIWC. Participants in the experimental group exhib ited higher positive emotion and there was no significant effect on the negative emotions. In control group there was no change in either positive or negative emotion. Based on the data obtained from the healthcare centers it was evident that participants belong to experimental group had less health problems as compared to the control group participants. (Pennebaker Seagal) 1999, asked students to write for 15 minutes for four consecutive days. Students belongs to experimental group were requested to write about emotional experience and students in the control group were asked to write about nonemotional topic. Topics covered in this test were description of the laboratory room or living room. Upon evaluation it was evident that writing of the students in the experimental was with high level emotions. Students in the experimental group also reported that writing test was very meaningful and valuable for them. Participants in the experimental group were interested in participating such writing test repeatedly. Students in both experimental and control group were asked to visit health care centers before and after the tests. In this study it was clearly evident that, students those were writing about their thoughts and feelings were having less number of health care visits post test. Broaden and built theory of positive emotions: Broaden and built theory states that positive emotions broaden the consciousness and promote the individual for innovative, diverse and exploratory thoughts and actions. Consequently, these broadened thoughts build skills and resources in the individual. Broaden and build theory was applied in the writing exercise about positive emotions. Burton and King, (2004), demonstrated that writing about positive emotions resulted in the increased happiness in the participants and there was less visits to the health care centers for illness. Research Question: Does a persons mood change according to their writing? Hypothesis: Writing a positive experience will lead to increase in positive mood. Participants : Participants were 77 (60 females) undergraduate students from an Australian tertiary education institution. The mean age of the participants was 30.18 years (SD = 9.17); male mean age was 30.05 (SD = 7.52), and female mean age was 30.22 (SD = 9.60). Materials : The Ego-Resiliency Scale (ER-89; Block Kremen, 1996). This 14 item measure of trait resiliency uses a 4-point Likert scale, ranging from does not apply at all (1) to applies very strongly (4). The scale is reportedly highly reliable ( = .76) with example items including: I am more curious than most people and I quickly get over and recover from being startled. Resiliency was calculated by summing scores from all 14 items with higher scores indicating greater resiliency. Positive and Negative Affectivity Scale (Watson, Clark, Tellegen, 1998). This 20-item scale was used to assess positive and negative ambient mood. Participants were asked to rate the extent to which they felt the emotions 'right now' on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from very slightly or not at all (1) to extremely (5). Both the positive mood scale ( = 0.90) and the negative mood scale ( = 0.84) are considered highly reliable. Example positive mood descriptors included interested, excited, strong, proud and inspired. Example negative mood descriptors included distressed, upset, guilty, irritable and nervous. Positive affect is calculated by summing scores from all 10 positive items, with higher scores indicating greater positive affect. Positive meaning finding. A series of questions adapted from those reported by Tugade and Fredrickson (2004) were administered in order to assess the degree to which participants found meaning in their described event. To prompt meaning finding, participants completed two open ended questions: What are/were the long term consequences of this event? and What is the significance of the event? Specific meaning finding questions included: To what extent do you feel you might benefit from this situation in the long term?; How likely is it that there is something to learn from this experience?; and How easy is it to find meaning in the described event? Ratings for these questions were made on a seven-point scale, ranging from not at all (1) to extremely (7). Meaning finding was calculated by summing scores for these three questions. Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count 2007 (Francis Pennebaker, 1996). All written positive disclosure essays were converted into individual word documents and analyzed through the LIWC program. The LIWC program was used to yield descriptive data on the number of positive and negative emotion words, and insight words used in the written disclosure pieces. In addition it was used to generate percentages of insight words used in the extended response positive meaning finding questions. The LIWC program has been found to correlate with judges' ratings in the range of .37 to .81 (Francis Pennebaker, 1996). Procedure : Data were collected from participants in either face-to-face or online first-year classes. Upon commencing the class, participants were introduced to the session as one on emotions. Qualtrics was the software program used to host the online survey. Participants were asked to pay close attention to instructions provided during the testing session. The session commenced with the ER-89, which served as a distraction questionnaire, and the PANAS. Following completion of these, the experimenter informed participants that they would complete a 10 minute writing task and that it was important that they tried to type for the entire 10 minutes. Participants were randomly assigned to the positive, neutral, or negative written disclosure condition. The experimenter stopped participants at the end of the 10 minutes and directed them to continue with the rest of the experiment. The remainder of the test consisted of a post-test PANAS, positive meaning finding and demographic questions. Once compl eted, participants were debriefed and provided with experimenter contact details should they require further information regarding the experiment. Results : Prior to running the statistical analyses all data were screened for normality and homogeneity of variance with no violations present in the data set. Reviews of the positive written disclosure statements revealed participants chose to write about a wide variety of positive experiences. The five most common positive experiences included parenthood, establishing a significant relationship with a life partner, travelling overseas, career, and academic achievements. The five most common negative experiences included future career prospects, current employment, financial concerns, mental health, and relationship issues. Hypothesis 1 stated that writing about an intense positive experience will result in the greatest increase in positive affect. To examine whether positive affect increased, change in positive affect scores were calculated by subtracting the pre-test from the post-test positive PANAS score. A one-way ANOVA with three levels of the independent variable (positive, neutral, or negative written disclosure task) was performed to test the impact of the written tasks on change in positive affect. Results revealed that there was a significant difference between the neutral (M = -1.12, SD = 5.76), negative (M = -3.81, SD = 9.54), and positive written disclosure conditions (M = 3.14, SD = 7.34) for change in positive affect scores, F(2, 173) = 12.14, p 0.001. Post hoc analyses using Bonferroni adjustments revealed that the differences between the positive and negative, and the positive and neutral conditions were significant to the .001 level for change in positive affect. This finding suggests that participants in the positive written disclosure condition experienced a greater increase in positive affect following the task, compared to those in the neutral and negative conditions. Discussion: At the initiation of the study hypothesis was made that writing positive experience would lead to increase in the positive mood. This hypothesis was supported with the results obtained in the current study. It is evident from the results that there is augmentation of positive mood due to the positive writing. This hypothesis was made based on the literature evidences and results obtained were also in agreement with evidences available in the literature. In this study it is evident that negative emotion writing doesnt have much impact on the health outcome and this observation is consistent with the literature. Obtained results are in agreement with the Broaden and built theory. It is also evident from the literature that positive writing resulted in the augumentation of blood markers for proper immune system functioning. Studies indicated that improvement in the biomarkers for immune system results in the reduced pain, lower consumption of medication and reduced depression in the ind ividual. Studies also indicated that writing about positive emotions results in the augmentation of the t-helper cells and antibody response to different antigens (Cameron Nicholls, 1998). Few studies indicated that feeling of the individual after the writing exercise depends on the individuals feeling prior to the writing exercise. Individuals who were feeling low in mood prior to writing exercise might feel high in mood after the completion of the writing exercise and individual who were feeling high in mood might feel low in mood after the completion of writing exercise. Writing about the positive emotions brings about both short and long term changes in the mood of the individual (Pennebaker, 1997). Writing about positive emotions exhibited comparable results to the positive talking (Donnelly Murray, 1991). It is also evident from the literature that men get more benefit from the writing exercise as compared to the women. Research indicated that people who were more aggressive and doubtful got more benefit from writing exercise as compared to the people who were low in these characters. Different studies were carried out with different days and time duration. Thes e studies were 1-5 days duration and 10-15 minutes time duration. Increase in the duration of writing also increases health benefits of the writing (Smyth, 1998). This study doesnt incorporated participants with equal distribution of male and female participants. In this study female participants were more as compared to the male participants. From the standard deviation, it is evident that participants age is in the broader range. These studied should be carried out with participants age in the narrow range. If variability of age is more in as single study, it would give confounding results because different age group people would have different state of mind and their mood and health status would have been different. To get the generalized outcome of this type of studies, it would be better to have both male and female participants in the equal proportion. Future research should be conducted with large number of participants in different parts of the world with participants of different socioeconomic background. From the literature it is evident that writing exercise is not useful in the adults for the improvement in mood and health of adult s. However, these studies were carried out in small group of adults. These studies should be carried out in adults of different background. Students in adolescent age are having more rapid development and there is high possibility of inclination towards both positive and negative development. In such students, this writing exercise would be more beneficial because this age is more dynamic and these students would acquire positive changes rapidly. In most of the literature, impact of positive writing on the improvement in health and mood was evaluated upto 3 months after the completion of the test. However, sustainability of these improvements was not evaluated for the long term. More studies should be conducted to evaluate effects of writing in long term upto 10 years after the completion of the test. This positive writing exercise can be applied in different sections of people like prisoners, medical students, crime victims, sufferers of pain due to chronic disease condition and me n with laid off from the job (Spera et al., 1994). In these positive moods can be built up using positive emotion writing. References: Block, J., Kremen, A. M. (1996). IQ and ego-resiliency: Conceptual andempirical connections and separateness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 349361. Burtona, C.M. King, L. A. (2004). The health benefits of writing about intensely positive experiences. Journal of Research in Personality, 38, 150163. Cameron, L.D., Nicholls, G. (1998). Expression of stressful experiences through writing: Effects of a self-regulation manipulation for pessimists and optimists. Health Psychology, 17, 84-92. Donnelly, D.A., Murray, E.J. (1991). Cognitive and emotional changes in written essays and therapy interviews. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 10, 334-350. Isen, A. M. (1999). Positive affect. In T. Dalgleish M. J. Power (Eds.), Handbook of cognition and emotion. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Isen, A. M. (2001). An influence of positive affect on decision making in complex situations: Theoretical issues with practical implications. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 11, 7585. King, L. A. (2002). Gain without pain: Expressive writing and self-regulation. In S.J. Lepore J. Smythe (Eds.), The writing cure, Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Pennebaker, J. W. Francis, M. E. (1996). Cognitive, Emotional, and Language Processes in Disclosure. Cognition and Emotion, 10(6), 601- 626. Pennebaker, J. W. Seagal, J. D. (1999). Forminy a Story: The Health Benefits ol Narative. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 55(10), 1243-1254. Pennebaker, J.W. (1997). Opening up: The healing power of emotional expression. New York:Guilford. Smyth, J.M. (1998). Written emotional expression: Effect sizes, outcome types, and moderating Variables. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 174-184. Spera, S.P., Buhrfeind, E.D., Pennebaker, J.W. (1994). Expressive writing and coping with job loss. Academy of Management Journal, 37, 722-733. Watson, D., Clark, L. A., Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validationof brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 10631070.